Nuclear War Movies Dr. Strangelove and Threads - 1345 Words

Many movies have been made that depict the what-ifs of a nuclear war. The two I am going to be discussing are Dr. Strangelove and Threads. Dr. Strangelove is about a paranoid Air Force base commander, orders a squadron of B-52 bombers into the Soviet Union to drop hydrogen bombs on military targets. He is the only one who knows the recall code that could be transmitted to abort the mission. At the pentagon, the U.S. President speaks with the Joint Chiefs in the war room to address the problem. General Turgidson sees this as an opportunity to completely destroy the â€Å"Commies† and prevent their inevitable retaliation. The president is a pacifist, and he invites the Russian Ambassador into the war room. Together, they call the Russian Premiere†¦show more content†¦The Kemps’ neighbors, the Stothards, are among these. Leaving in the Peugeot station wagon, its roof and seats piled with belongings find themselves caught up in the major influx of people heading fo r remote towns. Stopped by police on an essential service route, they are directed to the M1 where single-lane traffic is being allowed to proceed. Mr. Stothard takes the officer’s suggestion and carries on to his relatives using this route. Sheffield’s peacetime chief executive, Mr. Sutton, is also being advised of changes that need to be made to prepare for the possibility of attack. If necessary, the chief executive can be given full powers of internal government. He is advised to summon the pre-determined emergency, and the government is requisitioning raw materials for possible wartime use. As riots break out in the U.K., the government starts to reinforce Europe by taking control of British Airways and cross-channel ferries, leaving thousands of travelers stranded. The Royal Navy also moves in to guard the oil rigs of the North Sea. More disturbing, the U.S. aircraft carrier ‘Kittyhawk’ is sunk by a Soviet summoned to the fallout shelter below the ci ty hall. Hospitals are cleared out for expected casualties. Art galleries are also cleared and the paintings put into storage. May 26, 1984 TheShow MoreRelated The Atomic Bomb Changed the World Forever Essay2523 Words   |  11 Pagesa temporary resolution that lead to another conflict. The Cold War was a political standoff between the Soviet Union and the United States that again created a new worldwide nuclear threat. The destructive potential of nuclear weapons had created a global sweep of fear as to what might happen if these terrible forces where unleashed again. The technology involved in building the first atomic bombs has grown into the creation of nuclear weapons that are potentially 40 times more powerful than the originalRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pages Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History Jack Metzgar, Striking Steel: Solidarity Remembered Janis Appier, Policing Women: The Sexual Politics of Law Enforcement and the LAPD Allen Hunter, ed., Rethinking the Cold War Eric Foner, ed., The New American History. Revised and Expanded Edition E SSAYS ON _ T WENTIETH- C ENTURY H ISTORY Edited by Michael Adas for the American Historical Association TEMPLE UNIVERSITY PRESS PHILADELPHIA Temple

History of Social Policy Free Essays

1. Explain the meaning of the following terms: industrialisation; urbanisation; public health problems and the implications for state provisions The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and technology had an extreme effect on the society’s economic and cultural conditions. Starting in the United Kingdom, then consequently spreading throughout Europe, North America, and ultimately the world. We will write a custom essay sample on History of Social Policy or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history. Almost every feature of daily life was influenced in some way. Most particularly, average income and population began to exhibit extraordinary sustained growth. This is known as urbanisation. Urbanisation is the increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities. Rapid urbanisation took place during this period of industrialisation, many people moved from rural to urban areas to get jobs in the rapidly expanding industries in many large towns and cities. It is estimated that 1/6 of the British population visited London during the 18th century, and the most adventurous and ambitious stayed. This urbanisation had huge implications and resulted in complex societal changes which had adverse effects on the public health of communities. Diseases like typhoid and cholera were common. An outbreak of cholera in 1848 killed 14,000 in London. This was due to the housing shortages, sanitation problems, low standards of personal hygiene, polluted drinking water, exploitation of workers and widespread poverty. Great Britain in the nineteenth century was a great bastion of individualism where that unsympathetic principle of the political economists -laissez faire- dominated public opinion, and Parliament. The individualist theory of government holds that the position of state is to protect the liberty of individuals to act as they wish, as long as they do not infringe upon the liberties of others. Although there has been extended debate over whether this â€Å"age of -laissez faire† gave way to an â€Å"age of collectivism,† This is the period regarded as the source for the widespread collectivism that would ollow. Collectivism At its root is the belief that a collective is more than just individuals interacting together. It is the belief that the group is an entity itself, more important than the sum of the individuals. Put simply by John F. Kennedy â€Å"Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what you can do for your country. † And that is exactly what happened , In 1875 state intervention meant that a public health act was passed. This implemented that all new residential construction had to include running water, and an internal drainage system. Also the act meant that all towns had to have pavements and street lights. Yet there was still alot that needed to be done which meant more state intervention was necessary. The national insurance scheme introduced by the liberal government in 1911, gave most workers health insurance and unemployment benefits for workers in industries with high risks of unemployment. But by the 1920s and 1930s the economic depression and widespread unemployment meant that the national insurance scheme was paying out more that it recieved. Benefits were cut and a means test was imposed. This did not change a thing however, poverty was pervasive and particularly among the families of the unemployed. 2. Assess the relationship between laissez faire and ideas of welfare and poverty in the 19th century. Give examples including reference to the poor laws. The original people that believed in and encouraged laissez-faire were the physiocrats (political economists). The physiocrats were followers of the physiocrat school of economic thought, and were in a way the predecessors of classical economists. Although some of their more renowned ideas were very backwards, like believing that only land (physical assets) produced revenue, they certainly were the first to come up with the notion of laissez-faire. (or no government interference) In 1563 the poor of Britain were branded for the first time into deserving, and the undeserving. The elderly and the very young, the infirm, and families who irregularly found themselves in financial difficulties due to a change in circumstance were considered deserving of social support. But people who often turned to crime to make a living such as, highwaymen or pickpockets, migrant workers who roamed the country looking for work, and individuals who begged for a living, were to be treated unsympathetically. The act of 1572 introduced the first necessary poor local poor law tax, an important step acknowledging that alleviating poverty was the responsibility of local communities, in 1576 the concept of the workhouse was born, and in 1597 the post of overseer of the poor was created. The great act of 1601 combined all the previous acts and set the benchmark for the next two hundred years. The Poor Laws passed during the reign of Queen Elizabeth played an essential role in the country’s welfare. They signalled important progression from private charity to welfare state, where the care and supervision of the poor was embodied in law and integral to the management of each town, village and hamlet. In 1843, the newspaper The Economist was founded, and became an influential voice for laissez-faire capitalism. In response to the Irish famine of 1846–1849, in which over 1. 5 million people died of starvation, they argued that for the government to supply free food for the Irish would violate natural law. Clarendon, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, wrote, â€Å"I don’t think there is another legislature in Europe that would disregard such suffering. † Laissez-faire policy was never absolute in any nation, and at the end of the 19th century, European countries again took up some economic protectionism and interventionism. France for example, started cancelling its free trade agreements with other European countries in 1890. Germany’s protectionism started (again) with a December 1878 letter from Bismarck, resulting in the iron and rye tariff of 1879. 1929 was a crucial year across the globe. When the United States stock market crashed, ripples were felt across Europe. As hardship and insecurity walked hand-in-hand into the 1930s, they met increasing unemployment and poverty. As president of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt took action by implementing a new economic strategy in the New Deal. This model was the â€Å"optimistic activism, experimentation, and interventionist reforms† that the country so desperately needed at the time whilst the USA committed herself to social justice and firmly held the belief of government responsibility towards its citizens, the USSR praised socialism and developed communism. The United Kingdom saw the action other global governments were taking, and decided to follow the lead. In 1935 Attlee became the new leader of the Labour Party. At that time the Conservative government feared the spread of communism from the Soviet Union to the rest of Europe. In 1940 Attlee joined the coalition government headed by Winston Churchill. He was virtually deputy Prime Minister although this post did not formally become his until 1942. It was afterwards claimed that during the Second World War Attlee worked as a restraining influence on some of Churchill’s wilder schemes The Labour party published the Beveridge Report (1942), the bestselling â€Å"report (that) set out social programs to slay the ‘five giants’: Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor, and Idleness†. In 1945 Herbert Morrison (who was defeated by Clement Attlee for the leadership of the Labour Party in 1935) was given responsibility for drafting the Labour Party manifesto that included the blueprints for the nationalization and welfare programmes. The Labour Party was a socialist party and proud of it. As a result, the Labour government â€Å"established free medical care under a newly constituted National Health Service, created new systems of pensions, encourage better education and housing, and sought to deliver on the unambiguous commitment to ‘full employment. In 1945, the United Kingdom gave birth to the first modern welfare state. 3. How did the political ideology of the new right wing impact on social policies under Mrs Thatcher? What is a political ideology? Alcock (2003, p. 194, original emphasis) argues that ideology is ‘a concept that refers to the systems of beliefs within which all individuals perceive all social phenomena’. He goes on to stating that ‘in this usage no one system of beliefs is more correct, or more privileged, than any other’. Heywood (2003, p. 12) suggests, an ideology is a more or less coherent set of ideas that provides the basis for organized political action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify or overthrow the existing system of power. The new right, it is generally accepted that the political ideology of the New Right contains two interrelated but also sometimes contradictory strands of political thought: neo-liberalism and neo-conservatism. The core elements of neo-liberalism are support for individualism, laissez faire and limited government intervention in economy and society. Neo-liberals believe that individuals are rational and therefore the best judges of their own best nterests and that they should be allowed the utmost possible individual freedom to determine their own behavior subject only to the restriction that their behavior should not harm others. The core elements of neo-conservatism differ in several respects from those of neo-liberalism. Whereas classic liberals are all in favor of free individualistic decision making, conservatives put forward that this kind of individualism is a recipe for anarchy and that individual freedom, can best be guaranteed via respect for traditional norms, values and i nstitutions. They declare that traditional institutions and patterns of social behavior which have stood the test of time must have done so because they have been socially beneficial which leads neo-Conservatives to support the maintenance or at most only gradual change in the existing social order which implies support for traditional sources of authority, traditional patterns of social and economic inequality, traditional institutions and traditional values. They are therefore expected to be supporters of strong but limited government, the Monarchy and the Aristocracy, the Church, the traditional family and traditional education. Under the leadership of Mrs Thatcher the conservatives made it their duty to do away with socialism and to reduce the power of the trade unions. Thatcher’s government made changes to the N. H. S, by creating the internal market. This was down to the Griffiths reports (1983) which suggested that the N. H. S should be run like a super market. Instead of meeting patients’ needs, trusts would be run in competition with one another for patients. Administration costs in the N. H. S in 1979 were around 6%. After the introduction of the internal market these costs had doubled to 12%. this shows that Thatcher had introduced inefficiencies as a result of outsourcing and duplication of work. However, Thatcher’s intended privatisation was never carried through completely due to the backlash from the pub lic. Tebbit once described the N. H. S as the nearest thing in Britain to a â€Å"national religion†. The conservative government also contributed in making reforms to the state education system. The Conservatives’ 1979 Education Act removed the requirements introduced by previous Labor Governments that Local Authorities whose secondary schools were not currently organized on comprehensive lines must prepare plans for the transition to comprehensive education. Also under the 1979 Act Local Authorities were requested to place greater emphasis on parental choice in the allocation of school places although it has been suggested that in practice this requirement had only limited practical effects. The 1980 Education Act introduced an assisted Places Scheme which subsidized students who passed an entrance examination but whose parents had limited funds to be educated at private schools in the hope that this would enable these more able students to develop their talents more fully than would be possible in the state sector of education. This policy is a sign of a Conservative belief that state schools were often incapable of developing the talents of the most gifted pupils and in effect provided a state subsidy to the private education sector which the Conservatives wished to support. An important reform was the 1986 Education Act. This abolished corporal punishment in state schools. Other than this the Thatcher lead conservative party made many more changes to the education system Under the terms of the 1988 Education Reform Act, the following education policies were introduced. A National Curriculum was introduced which was to be followed compulsorily in all mainstream state schools but remained optional for independent schools. The National Curriculum was originally to contain 10 compulsory subjects of which 3 [English, Mathematics and Science] were to be â€Å"core† subjects and 7 [History, Geography, Technology, Music, Art, PE and a modern foreign language {at key stages 3 and 4}] were to be foundation subjects. Welsh was to be a Core Subject in Welsh -speaking schools and a foundation subject in Welsh non-Welsh speaking schools. RE was to be a compulsory â€Å"basic† subject in all schools although problems would arise surrounding the precise nature of the RE curriculum which was to be primarily based around Christianity except where the ethnic/religious composition of the school population suggested that this was inappropriate. In conclusion Thatcher’s conservative party had an immense impact and made numerous reforms and changes whilst in government. After all she is not called a social policy expert (Clare Beckett: The 20 Prime Ministers of the 20th Century) for nothing. How to cite History of Social Policy, Papers

Human Rights Law Members of Organization

Question: Describe about the Human Rights Law for Members of Organization. Answer: The African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, which is called as Banjul Charter, was given approval on 27 June 1981 and it started working from 21 October 1986. It has been accepted by 53 States members of Organization of African Unity (OAU). In order to make a human right system which is regional, the African Charter has followed the Inter-American and the European system. The Charter has many unique features regarding the norms that it acknowledge though there are many characteristics that are similar to other regional charter. The African Charter is unique as it has given more importance on right of the people which shows social traditions of collective and group life of Africa. A single member of any class or group is always inferior to the group and is not considered to be independent. These groups have some rights and the individuals have duties towards the concerned groups. Therefore, the Charter stipulates individuals rights and duties. The Charters preamble speaks about t he removing of Zionism, i.e., political movement of the Jews and Jewish culture that is to be compared with Colonialism which means the policy of making control over one country by a superior country in order to make it a colony, which has been faced by Africa in the past[1]. Analysing the position of the African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights: A Commission has been established by the Charter to encourage right of the people and look after their protection in Africa. The said Commission shall be consisting of eleven members who are selected from the people of the highest authority in Africa and special consideration is given to persons having legal knowledge[2]. If any party to the Charter has some good cause and facts to believe that any other Party have derogated the provisions mentioned in the Charter, it may notify the fact to that State in writing. This communication should be also notified to the Chairman of the Commission and also to the Secretary-General of OAU. The concerned State to which the communication has been made has to provide written explanation to elucidate the matter in question. The explanation should include all the possible and relevant information which is related to the rules and laws that are applicable and the remedy provided. If the issue is not settled with full satisfaction between the two parties within three months from the date when the communication was received by the answering State, the either state has the right to report the concerned matter to the Commission through its Chairman and will provide notice to the other State[3]. If any Party to the Charter have the opinion that any other Party has insulted the provisions, the matter can be referred to the Commission directly by making the notification to the Chairman, to the Secretary-General of the OAU and the concerned State. The matter is solved by the Commission when all the remedies that can be provided by the party itself have been used. At the time of considering the matter, the Commission may ask for all relevant information from the State. The concerned State can submit written or oral representation before the Commission. After receiving all the relevant information from the State concerned and from all other sources and after trying to reach to a friendly solution in terms of rights of the people, the Commission within a proper period of time shall make a report which will state the facts and findings. This report is to be sent to the concerned States and also will be notified to the Assembly of Heads of States and Government. Any useful recommend ations can also be made by the Commission while transmitting the report[4]. A list of various communications shall be made by the Secretary of the Commission and is passed to the members to the Commission, who determines which particular communication is to be taken into account. The communication that is taken into account is determined by the decision taken by the majority of the members. A communication is considered if they coexists with the Charter of the OAU, is not depends on the news that are differentiated by the media, should not deal with the cases that are already referred to and settled by the States that are involved according to the provisions of the United Nations Charter or the OAU. Prior to any substantiating consideration, the Chairman of the Commission should pass all the communications to the particular State[5]. After deliberation, if the Commission thinks that a single communication or more than one communications seems to be related to some special situations which disclose the presence of massive derogation of right of the people, shall bring it to the notice of the Assembly of the Heads of State and Government. The Government and Assembly of the Heads of State after getting the notice can ask the Commission to go through a deep study regarding these situations and frame a report based on the facts, including its findings and recommendations. It is to be noted that individuals and inter-State complaints are automatically accepted by the Commission after it is ratified by the African Charter. The measures that are taken are to be kept in confidence till the Assembly of Heads of State and Government thinks fit. The distinction between the limitations and derogations within the human rights discourse: In the African Charter of Human and Peoples Rights, there are certain rights and duties of the individuals that have been mentioned in the Chapter I Part I and Chapter II respectively. Some of the rights mentioned are equality before law, right to receive information, right to have freedom of association and movement, right to property, right to respect for his life, right to education etc. Some of the duties that have been mentioned in the Charter are that every individual has his duties towards the society and his family as well as the State or international communities, an individual has the duty to serve his nation, to promote African unity etc. It is the duty of the State parties to encourage and protect through educating, teaching and publishing the rights and duties to the individuals. It is the duty of the State to look after the freedom of the courts in order to protect the above rights and freedoms[6]. Therefore, the rights and the duties are the limitations of the individuals that have been provided by the Charter with keeping in mind the human psychology and requirement. All the individuals including the State will have to act accordingly. Whereas, the derogation mean the violation or insulting of the provisions mentioned in the Charter which is considered as unlawful unless it has been done reasonably in course of some public emergency. Any individual or the State will have to provide proper reason for the derogation made by them[7]. Bibliography: Achpr. (2016). African Charter on Human and People's Rights. Retrieved November 22, 2016, from achpr.org: www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr Achpr. (2016). African Commission on Human and People's Rights. Retrieved November 22, 2016, from achpr.org: www.achpr.org Ihrda. (2012, October). African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights (ACmHPR). Retrieved November 23, 2016, from Ihrda: https://www.ihrda.org/2012/10/african-commission-on-human-and-peoples-rights-acmhpr/ Ijrcenter. (2012). African human rights system. Retrieved November 23, 2016, from Ijrcenter: https://www.ijrcenter.org/regional/african/ Internationalhumanrightslaw. (2015, September 30). Limitations, exception and derogations. Retrieved November 23, 2016, from Internationalhumanrightslaw: https://internationalhumanrightslaw.net/class/limitations-exceptions-derogations/ Leganet. (2016). Protection of Human Rights in Africa. Retrieved November 22, 2016, from leganet.cd: www.leganet.cd/Doctrine.textes/DroitPublic/DH/ProtectionofHR Opensocietyfoundations. (2013, June). African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights. Retrieved November 23, 2016, from Opensocietyfoundations: https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/fact-sheets/african-commission-human-and-peoples-rights

Learning English Autonomy free essay sample

The samples consist of four teachers, fifteenth students of DHAV6A and fifteenth students of DHAV4B. I need about one month to carry out this report. I expect that this report can be a suitable material for other students who want to study this issue in the future. Through his research, I also have more choices about my teaching method in the future. * INTRODUCTION: Today, English is an international language understood and spoken in almost countries in the world. English truly links the whole world together. In Vietnam, since we joined into many economic associations like Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), participated in the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), and recently become the 150th member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), more and more investors have required English as a means of communication, have poured capital into the country. The demand for a skilled labor force having good command of English speaking skill has become increased and consequently, English has been the first choice in the country. We will write a custom essay sample on Learning English Autonomy or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page However, the communicative competence in English of Vietnamese workforce has not met the requirements of the employers. A large number of fresh university graduates have not been employed by foreign enterprises because of their poor English listening and speaking skills (Ha, 2007, p. 9). Although in Vietnamese education, English is one of main subjects in many secondary schools, high schools, and even universities or in some primary schools in Vietnam, they also teach English for children as well as teaching mother tongue (Vietnamese), many teachers often use Vietnamese in their teaching of speaking process. There are some arguments about using Vietnamese in English speaking class. Some people say that Vietnamese will assist much for teaching and learning English speaking skill such as helping teachers explain difficult words in English, explaining some localization word of Vietnamese, helping students understand fully what the teacher teach, help students chat to each other more easier†¦However, some people say that using Vietnamese in teaching and learning English speaking will interfere the teaching and learning process like not improving student’s communication,†¦ This led to the idea that all use of the mother tongue in the language classroom should be avoided (Harmer, 2001:131). In many materials of teaching and learning language, writers have given a lot of good ways to teach and learn speaking skill most accuracy and effective. These arguments now are severe, and still not give any concrete conclusion about using Vietnamese in teaching and learning speaking process in English class. So, is it should or should not use Vietnamese in English class? What are the roles of mother tongue? What are the purposes of using Vietnamese in English speaking class? How can teacher use Vietnamese in the most effective way? The purpose of the study is to find out the amount of English and Vietnamese are used by both teachers and students in English class and the reasons why teacher and students use Vietnamese in English class. Most importantly, the use of Vietnamese has positive or negative effects on the learning of English. The significant of the study lays in the fact that there are a little professional research and material about this topic. Studying this topic can help we have more suitable and accuracy methods of learning and teaching English in English class. II. LITERATURE REVIEW: 2. 1. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS: The general usage of the term mother tongue . . . denotes not only the language one learns from ones mother, but also the speakers dominant and home language, i. e. not only the first language according to the time of acquisition, but the first with regard to its importance and the speakers ability to master its linguistic and communicative aspects. For example, if a language school advertises that all its teachers are native speakers of English, we would most likely complain if we later learned that although the teachers do have some vague childhood memories of the time when they talked to their mothers in English, they, however, grew up in some non-English speaking country and are fluent in a second language only. Similarly, in translation theory, the claim that one should translate only into ones mother tongue, is in fact a claim that one should only translate into ones first and dominant language. N. Pokorn, Challenging the Traditional Axioms: Translation into a Non-Mother Tongue. John Benjamins, 2005) Mother tongue or mother language refers to a child’s first language, the language learned in the home from older family members. (UNESCO, 2003, p. 15) In some places, the term has taken on more of a culturally symbolic definition, so that an individual might say, ‘I don’t actually speak my mother tongueâ₠¬â„¢. A related term, home language, refers to the language or languages spoken in the student’s home. Dorthe Buhmann -Barbara Trudell, Mother Tongue Matters: Local Language as a Key to Effective Learning, UNESCO 7 place de Fontenoy 75352 Paris France) As the definition of Hubbard – Jones- Thornton- Wheeler, A Training Course for TEFL, Oxford University Press 1983 L1 is the first langue or mother tongue while L2 is target language- the foreign language being learnt. L1 interference is the effect of mother tongue on a student’s production of L2, causing errors through analogy with L1. Speaking skill is the productive skill in the oral mode. It like the other skills, is more complicated than it seems at first and involves more than just pronouncing words. (LinguaLinks Library, version 3. 5, published on CD- ROM by SIL International, 1999). According to the Oxford Dictionary of Current English 2009, speaking is â€Å"the action of conveying information or expressing ones’ thoughts and feelings in spoken language†. (P. 414) Chaney (1990), however, considered speaking a process: †speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal or non- verbal symbols in a variety of contexts† (P. 13). Sharing the same viewpoint, Florez (1999) added that speaking is an â€Å"interactive† process, which consists of three main stages â€Å"producing, receiving and processing information. † (P. 1) In language teaching and learning, speaking is considered a skill to practice and master. In this light, Nunan (2003, P. 48) put it that â€Å"speaking is the productive oral skill. It consists of producing systematic verbal utterance to convey meaning†. Also considering speaking as a skill Bygate (1987, P. 3) investigated the distinction between knowledge and skill in speaking lesson, which he considered as crucial in the teaching of speaking. Le Thi Hong Phuc, Teacher’s immediate oral feedback in speaking lesson for 11th – form students, May 2010). 2. 2. THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK: 2. 2. 1. ROLE OF MOTHER TONGUE (VIETNAMESE) IN ENGLISH SPEAKING CLASS: At a conference in Singapore, Peter Martin (2006) quoted an English language teacher from Brunei whom he had i nterviewed: I try not to [use Malay] but sometimes you have to. If we don’t use Malay, they won’t understand, especially some textbooks. The words are difficult. I don’t like to use Malay if inspectors are here but I sometimes do. Otherwise they [the pupils] won’t understand and they [the inspectors] might us as bad teachers. (Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Pearson Education Limited 2007) Mother tongue is not only the basic source of quality education, but it is also the language of feeling, expression and dreams of human being. A man can express his feelings and thoughts very easily in mother tongue instead of any other language. The mother tongue is so important in the development of the child that the day was instituted in recognition of ts value and for the promotion of its usage as an instrument of transmitting culture in the socialization of the child. The UNESCO and other international organizations have declared mother tongue as medium of instructions for across the world, while the other hand, all linguist, scholars and intellectuals are agreed that the mother tongue should be taught as instruction across the world, because mother tongue is only basic source of qualit y education for everyone. The February 21st was declared as â€Å"International Mother Tongue Day†, by UNECO in 1999 to be celebrated world- wide. Mr. Hafeez Qureshi, writer and political activist, said that vocational and technical development of countries and nations should be made only in mother tongue, and this is the main reason for economic development of Japan. He said that promotion of mother tongue is the only cause of nation’s development. Ms. Zeb Nizamani, a writer and subject specialist of Sindhi mother tongue said that a child brings natural vocabulary of mother tongue before joining the school, so every child should be taught in his own mother tongue. Prof. Dr. Asad Ali Shaikh, from I. T department of Sindh University, said that we are living in an era of information technology. So it is very necessary that nations should be computer literate. The computing development can make mother tongue richer. Mr. Roshan Birhamani chief editor monthly â€Å"Sjagi†, a magazine for children said that children literature can be the only source of defense and use of mother tongue. So we should have to concentrate on development of literature for children and young adult. Mirza Saleem Baig, professor, Urdu department Sindh University said that English is the language of communication and source of employment, while the most effective source of quality education is mother tongue, because mother tongue is the only language of child’s thought. Prof. Dr. Mehriunnissa Larik, Principal Govt. degree college Matiari said that the issue of mother tongue is the issue of nations heredity, and nations, who concentrate or their mother tongues, are the most develop nations in the world. Prof. Najma Shaikh said that there is a competition between all the countries because all these countries are depending on their mother tongues. So we should develop our mother tongue. Mr. Wahab Pandrani, a political activist and regional head of democratic commission for human development said that languages are the source of communication among the nations and people, so we have to stable and develop our mother tongue. Mr. Irshad Junejo, a student of mass communication said that the issue od development and promotion of mother tongue is collective and not individual! So it is needed that the forums should be made to activate the issues related to mother tongue. Mr. Abdul Majeed Rajput, chief editor â€Å"Daily Ass† said that quality education is needed to train all teachers, because the teacher is main unit of education. We have to train our teacher for effective learning of our children. Moulana Azim Hussain, the honorary guest of â€Å"Importance of Mother Tongue in Quality Education† conference, coming from India said that youth can play significant role for quality education in mother tongue, because the energetic and potential cream of every nation is youth. The chief guest of the conference Prof. Adal Soomro, chairman Sindhi department, Shah Abdul Latif University Khairpur said that everyone loves his mother tongue in this world. Own script of any language is source as educational language. The second chief guest of conference â€Å"Importance of Mother Tongue in Quality Education†Mr. Shoukat Hussain Shoro, Ex-director Institute of Sindhology said that private school system is ignoring the teaching of mother tongue and on the other have Govt. Schools are not teaching effectively, so we have to concentrate on our school systems. 2. 2. 2. THE BENEFITS OF USING THE L1 IN THE L2 CLASSROOM: There are many occasions when using the students’ L1 in the classroom has obvious advantages. For example, D Jabr Dajani( 2002) suggests its use in planning, self- evaluation and learner training, where if the teacher speaks the students’ L1 , these topic can be discussed fluently instead of in the halting English of the beginning or elementary students. Sheelagh Deller (2003) suggests that, among other things, it is useful for students to notice differences between their L1 and the target language, that when students use their L1 between themselves and with the teacher, it has a positive effect on group dynamics, and it allows students to give ongoing feedback about the course and their experiences of learning much more fluently than they would if they were only using English. Daniel Linder (2002) suggests a number of translation activities for use in general classroom. These include straight translation of short texts and a translation summary of a longer text. His recommendation is that these activities should be done in groups because a discussion of the issues they raise is likely to be more revealing with two or more people than when they just think about it ourselves. Boris Naimushin (2002), echoing our earlier comments about language use in the modern world, sees translation as the â€Å"fifth skill† after reading, writing, speaking and listening. There seem to be three strands operating here: in the first place, many commentators recognize the desirability of using the students’ L1 when talking about learning. So, for example, if teacher want to discuss making a learning contract with their students, or to ask students what they want or need, then they will get more from lower- level students if they do it in the students’ L1 than if they try to struggle through with English. If you want to explain things, help students with learning training or discuss matters personally with students, then again, we will more success at lower levels if we can use the students’ L1. Secondly, there is clearly a lot to be gained from the comparison between the L1 and the L2. Student can make these comparisons anyway, so we may as well help them do it more effectively. It will help them to understand certain classes of error if we are able to show them such differences. The kind of translation activities suggested above will also help in this respect, making a virtue out of the students’ natural language processing behavior. Translation can also be a very good way of reviewing how well students have understood grammar and lexis at the end of a unit of study. Finally, students (and their teachers) can use the L1 to keep the social atmosphere of the class in good repair. There is a case for saying that rapport is enhanced when teachers can exchange jokes with students or talk to them about aspects of their lives. (Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Pearson Education Limited 2007) Mother tongue is the best medium for the expression of one’s ideas and feelings. Thus, it is the most potent agent for mutual communication and exchange of ideas. Of all the languages, the mother tongue is the most easy to learn. Full proficiency or mastery can be achieved in one’s own mother tongue. Thinking is an instrument of acquiring knowledge, and thinking is impossible without language. â€Å"And training in the use of mother tongue- the tongue in which a child thinks and dreams- become the first essential of shoaling and the finest instrument of human culture. † (P. B. Ballard). We may be able to communicate in any language, but creative self- expression is possible only in one’s own mother tongue. This is clear from the fact that all great writers could produce great literature only in their own language. Mother tongue is the most important instrument for bringing about emotional development of the individual. The emotional effect of literature and poetry is something which is of vital importance in the development and refinement of emotions. The teaching of the mother tongue brings many benefits such as growth in students’ intellectual life; growth in knowledge; growth in ability to express themselves; growth in creative and productive ability – all stem from the mother tongue. Original ideas are the product of one’s own mother tongue. On account of the facility of thought and expression, new and original ideas take birth and get shape only in one’s own mother tongue. 2. 2. 3. THE DISADVANTAGES OF USING THE L1 IH THE L2 CLASSROOM: During the late 1970s and the early 1980s the use of the mother tongue in the classroom was considered as a â€Å"bad thing†, because the learners should have a maximum exposure to the target language. Therefore, researchers such as Richards and Rogers, who considered that the L1 should be inexistent within the L2 classroom, can be found (Martin, J. M. 2000:31). (Maria Olivares Banos, Mother Tongue in the L2 classroom: a positive or negative tool? , 2009) There are problems with an unquestioning use of the students’ L1 in the L2 classroom, just as there were with the idea of a total ban on its appearance. The first, of course, is that as we have pointed out, the teacher may not always share the students’ L1- or at least the L1 of all the students in the classroom. This does not mean that students will no longer make comparison between the L1 and English; as we have said, they will do this consciously anyway. Nor those it mean that the teacher is unable to ask students questions such as Do you have an expression for this in your language? Is it literally the same? Can you translation it back in English? This is extremely rich territory when discussing idioms or metaphorical usage. For example, colors have different metaphorical meanings and uses in different languages and cultures, and the variety of idiomatic ways of saying that something is obvious ( as plain as the nose on your face in some varieties of British English in difference languages that have been reported to me ( translated here into English) – as straight as a wire (Polish); if it’s a dog, it bites (Cuban Spanish); when you can see a village, you don’t have to ask for directions (Turkey); there’s an elephant in the field (Burma- Myanmar) – is breathtaking. But you can encourage students to translate grammatical concepts and lexical items, too, and draw their attention to different writing conventions and genres. However, our interaction with the students’ L1 is obviously limited when you do not, for whatever reason, share it. A more serious objection to the use (especially the over- use) of the students’ L1 is that it restricts the students’ exposure to English. It is possible, for example, to make a good case for the use of their L1 when we give instructions, but this reduces their exposure to a type of English that is â€Å"an ideal source of language for student acquisition† (Harbord 1992:353). The teacher is a principal source of useful comprehensible input, the more time we spend speaking English, the better. Teachers can sometimes find themselves use the L1 more than they intended. When Linda Bawcom transcribed her lessons with two students in Spain, she found that the three of them were speaking Spanish 33 per cent of the time (2002: 50). While she speculated that this might felt that there was just too much L1 being used and set out, with the students’ agreement, to ration its occurrence more judiciously. When visiting a secondary class in the Czech Republic, Simon Gill (2005) found that the particular teacher he observed only used English 5 per cent of the time, and I have encountered similar situation in classrooms in a number of countries. In such situations the student’s exposure to the English language has been unnecessarily restricted; the balance has tipped too far. There is one other situation in which the use of the L1 seems counter- productive and this is when we are encouraging students to use English in communicative speaking tasks, whose purpose, after all, is to give student in English. We may understand their natural inclination to communicate in the best way they (i. e in their L1), but it will not be useful for the purposes of the activity we have asked them to engage in. (Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Pearson Education Limited 2007) It is just kind of tendency that could to the development of excessive dependency on the student’s mother tongue (Harbord, 1992) by both teachers and students. Consequently students lose their confidence in their ability to communicate in English. They may feel that the only way they would understand anything the teacher says is when it has been translated or they use their mother tongue when they are perfectly capable of expressing the same ideas in English. This can significantly reduce student’s opportunities to practice English, and students fail to realize that using English in classroom activities is essential to improve their language skills. Translation also regularly creates the problem of oversimplification because some culture and linguistic nuances cannot be directly translated (Harbord, 1992). For example, the sentence â€Å"that’s so cool† in English means that something is amazing or incredible. This phrase is the product of the continual evolution of the English language that was affected by the specific culture at a certain time. 2. 2. 4. SOME TOOLS THAT AID TO THE AVOIDDANCE THE USE OF MOTHER TONGUE: * Course book: a course book with diagrams and illustrations will make understanding easier for students and thus there will be no need for the use of mother tongue. * Flash card: makes learning easier without the need for another language so also is slide show. Photo- dictionary: some students usual use dictionary with words translated to their native language. A dictionary with pictures will make the need for another language unnecessary. ( Saeed Mubarak, Avoiding Mother Tongue in Classroom, posted on March 6 th, 2011) 2. 2. 5. CONCLUSIONS ABOUT HOW AND WHEN TO USE THE STUDENTS’ L1 IN THE CLASSROOM: * Acknowledge the L1: it makes no sense to deny th e importance of the students’ L1 in their L2 learning. Even where we do not share the students’ languages, we can show our understanding of the learning process and discuss L1 and L2 issues with the class. * Use appropriate L1L2 activities: we can use sensible activities which maximize the benefits of using the students’ L1. These may include translation exercises of the kind we have mentioned, or specific contrasts between the two languages in areas of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation or discourse. We may not use the students’ L1 to discuss learning matters such as the establishment of a code of conduct, or the best ways of keeping vocabulary notebooks or the giving of announcements. However, this will be done in the context of a largely English- use classroom. Differentiate between levels: while it may make sense to use the students’ L1 for explanations and rapport- enhancement at lower levels, this become appropriate as the teacher’ English improves. The more they work in English, the more their English will get, and the better their English is, the class need we need of the L1 for reason of rapport- enhancement or discu ssion and explanation of learning matters. However, we may still want to make comparisons between L1 and L2 and encourage the â€Å"fifth skill† of translation. Agree clear guidelines: students need to know when mother- tongue use is productive and when it is not. While, for example, we may not worry about it when they are discussing answers to a reading comprehension in pairs, we will be less happy (as we have said) if they speak in the L1 for an oral communicative activities. We will discuss the issue of the L1 use with our class either as the subject comes up or when establishing some kind of code of conduct. We will ask the students for their opinions on L1 use and give our guidelines, too, so that we can make some kind of a bargain. Students will have then agreed about when L1 use is appropriate and when, on the contrary, it is counter- productive. We have seen how some teachers over- use the students’ L1 often unintentionally. But if we agree clear guidelines with the class, when we should follow them ourselves if we want our students to adhere to them. * Use encouragement and persuasion: teachers all over the world spend a lot of their time going round to students, especially during activities saying things like, please speak English! r why not stop using Turkish/ Arabic/ Portuguese/ Greek? etc. and it often works, especially if students have discussed the issue of the L1 use with the teacher previously. If such encouragement doesn’t work, we can temporarily stop the activity and explain to students that since the activity is designed to give them practice in speaking English, it makes little sense if they do it in another language. This sometimes changes the atmosphere so that they go back the a ctivity with a new determination. 2. 3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS: Many previous studies have focused on the different uses of the mother tongue in the classroom. In my proposal report, I will discuss some questions such as: â€Å"is the use of Vietnamese beneficial of interfere in an English speaking class (DHAV6)? †, â€Å"how frequently is it used and for what purposes? †, â€Å"how do the students feel when their teacher use Vietnamese in speaking class? †. I hope that my proposal report can help me answer these questions and give me suitable methods for my teaching jobs in future. * RESEARCH DESIGN: This proposal report will be carried out in Ho Chi Minh University of Industry, at The Faculty of Foreign Language where I have been studied for four years. The samples for my proposal report are four speaking teachers of FFL with their teaching experience ranged from 3 to 15 years many years and the second- year students DHAV6 including class DHAV6A (15 students) and DHAV6B (15 students). I choose these students of DHAV6 because this class accesses English language more than other classes of other subjects and their experience of speaking English is not professional much. At this level, they get some basic knowledge in some subjects of English skill like speaking, listening, writing, reading,†¦I also ask for these speaking teachers of FFL ideas and information about their experience of teaching Speaking skill on their classes. Everyone have their own ways of carrying out research to get the most successful results. To implement this research, I use both qualitative and quantitative research methods including observation methods, interview methods to have more effective results. For the interview method, I will give some questions related to my research to four teachers and the students of DHAV6 to get the necessary information for my research. The interview method can help me get individual ideas of all teachers and the students who I ask. Firstly, I will interview four teachers of FFL for their experience of teaching speaking. Do they ever use Vietnamese in their speaking class? For what purposes? Each interview lasted between 10 minutes and 15 minutes. For the students, I have some questions to get their ideas about the use of Vietnamese in English speaking class? I want to know that they like using Vietnamese or English much in their class. And I want to compare my experience in speaking class with these students in speaking class. (I have ever used Vietnamese in English speaking class while I have met some difficult words or chatted with other friends,†¦). I also try to collect these student’s ways of avoiding Vietnamese in class. Through the interview of four speaking teacher, I want to have more professional ideas about the using of Vietnamese in English class. All teachers have many experiences in teaching speaking skill. And they have experienced a lot of special situations in which made them choose between Vietnamese and English to teach their students. I expect to find their solutions for these special situations and the reasons for their choices. The interview will be recorded or took note and summarized. They are following these key questions: * Interview questions for students: * Do your teachers usually use Vietnamese in your English class? * In which subjects your teachers often use Vietnamese most? * Do you like the teacher use English or Vietnamese in Teaching English? Why? * Do you ever use Vietnamese in your speaking class? How can you try to avoid this problem? * Interview questions for teachers: * Do you ever use Vietnamese in your speaking class? In which situation, you use it? * Should teacher use Vietnamese in teaching English process? Why? * Why should not teachers use Vietnamese in English class? * In which situations teachers should use Vietnamese in English class? Why? In the observation method, I will observe both classes of DHAV6A and DHAV6B on their speaking periods. During their periods of teaching and learning, I will observer and take note how frequent teacher and students use Vietnamese in class. And in which situations they use mother tongue instead of English to discuss together. I also focus on what kind of topic they talk by Vietnamese and English in speaking class such as discussing the topic in course book or just chat together. By the interview and observation results of these teachers and students, I hope I can get the answers for all research questions and have suitable methods for my teaching jobs in some days. I also hope that this eport can help other students have more material sources for their studies in the next times. * TIME SCHEDULE: | |The time needed (how long will the researcher need? ) | |Tasks to do | | | |2 days: I will need two days to decide where I can carry out this | | |research. And I decide to choose Ho Chi Minh University of Industry- | |Contact the field words for access |The Faculty of Foreign Language. | | |3 days: I need three days to find a suitable class for my research. I | |Looking for sample |need to search the number of students and their speaking teachers. | | |15 days: I spend most time to collect data for this research. I much | | |find information in the Internet as well as carry out the interview | |Collecting data |and observation. | | |10 days: After collecting data and finishing the interview and | | |observation, I will start to analyze all the data. I will study the | | |result of interview and observation to have the specific numbers or | |Analyzing data |the conclusion for the report. | | |2 days: after finish all parts of the proposal report, I need two days| |Correcting and arranging the report |for correcting and arranging all data to get the complete report. | * REFERENCES (Written in APA style) * (N. Pokorn, Challenging the Traditional Axioms: Translation into a Non-Mother Tongue. John Benjamins, 2005) * (Dorthe Buhmann -Barbara Trudell, Mother Tongue Matters: Local Language as a Key to Effective Learning, UNESCO 7 place de Fontenoy 75352 Paris France) * (LinguaLinks Library, version 3. 5, published on CD- ROM by SIL International, 1999). * ( Le Thi Hong Phuc, Teacher’s immediate oral feedback in speaking lesson for 11th – form students, May 2010). * (Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Pearson Education Limited 2007) * (Maria Olivares Banos, Mother Tongue in the L2 classroom: a positive or negative tool? , 2009) ( Saeed Mubarak, Avoiding Mother Tongue in Classroom, posted on March 6 th, 2011) * Kieu Hang Kim Anh- College of Financial and Customs, Use of Vietnamese in English class: Attitude of Vietnamese University Teachers, June 2010. * Baljit Bhela –Flinders university of Education, Native language Interference in learning a second language, International Educational Journal Vol 1, No 1, 1999, http:// iej. cjb. ne t * Galina Kavaliauskiene- Mykolas Romeris University, Role of Mother tongue in Learning English for special purposes, EPS World, Issue 1 (22), Volume 8, 2009, http:// esp- world. info * APPENDICES

Who Provides the Better Approach to Human Behaviour, Freud or Skinner Essays

Who Provides the Better Approach to Human Behaviour, Freud or Skinner Essays Who Provides the Better Approach to Human Behaviour, Freud or Skinner Paper Who Provides the Better Approach to Human Behaviour, Freud or Skinner Paper Why do we behave the way we do? Is our environment responsible for shaping our personalities? Does childhood influence who we are? These are all questions that have intrigued philosophers and society in general for centuries. ‘There are many experts that share and dispute the answers to these questions, but there are two in particular that have contributed greatly in finding explanations’ (Crux, 2006); Sigmund Freud and Burrhus Frederick Skinner. This essay will compare Freud’s and Skinner’s approach towards human behaviour, highlighting the main ideas and focus of their theories and subsequently coming to an informative decision as to who provides the better approach. This is achieved by pinpointing criticisms that hinder their reasoning, practicality and efficiency. ‘Psychodynamic theories embrace all the diverse theories descended from the work of Sigmund Freud, which focuses on unconscious mental forces and asserts the idea that behaviour is caused by internal, mental mechanisms’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 488). Freud’s (1901, 1924, 1940) psychoanalytic theory grew out of his decades of interactions with his clients in psychoanalysis. Freud’s psychoanalytic approach seeks to explain behaviour, motivation and mental disorders by focusing on the influence of early childhood experiences, on unconscious motives and conflicts, and on the methods people use to cope with their sexual and aggressive urges (Weiten, 2001). Freud identified three components of personality structure: the id, the ego and the superego. He saw a person’s behaviour as the result of interactions between these three components. The id is the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 488). The id is entirely centered on your needs and wants, and it drives you to fulfill those desires at whatever cost. The ego is the ‘decision making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle’ (Weite n, 2001, p. 488). It causes you to meet your needs and wants in a socially acceptable manner. In the long run, the ego wants to maximise pleasure, just as the id does. However, ‘the id engages in secondary process thinking, which is relatively rational, realistic and orientated towards problem solving’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 489). In addition, the ego establishes the division between yourself and others, and it identifies the need to negotiate within the world in order to satisfy your desires. The ego also acts as a link between the id and superego. ‘The superego is the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 489). Furthermore, according to Freud, unconscious conflicts between the id, ego and superego sometimes lead to anxiety. When this happens the ‘ego uses several defense mechanisms including: denial, repression, intellectualization, displacement, projection, reaction formation, identification, regression, rationalization and sublimation’ (Miller Shelly, 2001, p. 34). According to Freud, the id, ego and superego are distributed differently across three levels of awareness: the conscious, the preconscious and the unconscious. ‘Perhaps Freud’s most enduring insight was his recognition of how unconscious forces can influence behaviour. He inferred the existence of the unconscious from an array of observations that he made with his patients’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 89). For example, he recognized that ‘slips of the tongue’, or now more commonly known as the Freudian slip, often revealed a person’s true feelings. He also noticed that his patients’ dreams often expressed secret desires. ‘Most important, through psychoanalysis he often helped patients to discover feelings and conflicts of which they had previously been unaware’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 489). Therefore, put simply the unconscious mind contains thoughts, memories and desires that are not easily accessible but greatly influence our behaviour. The preconscious mind contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can be easily retrieved’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 489). For example, what we ate for lunch yesterday, your telephone number, or the name of our first true love. Finally the conscious mind is that part of the mind that contains all the things we are aware of. For example, your conscious might be that you’re tired and hungry. According to Freud’s theory, ‘people must successfully pass through five stages of development in order to become healthy, well adjusted adults’ (Miller Shelly, 2001, p. 35). Each phase has an objective that must be accomplished successfully. If the goal is not reached, the person becomes ‘fixated at the uncompleted stage, which results in problems later in life’ (Miller Shelly, 2001, p. 34). The five stages are: oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital. The oral stage lasts from birth to eighteen months of age and is primarily based on eating, drinking and sucking. In Freud’s view, the ‘handling of the child’s feeding experiences is crucial to subsequent development’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 495). He attributed considerable importance to the manner in which the child is weaned from the breast or the bottle. In fact, according to Freud, fixation at the oral stage could form the basis for obsessive eating or smoking later in life (Benson, 1998). In the anal stage, the two year olds focus of pleasure shifts to the anus, helping the child become aware of its bowels and how to control them. The crucial event at this time is toilet training, which represents ‘society’s first systematic effort to regulate the child’s biological urges’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 495). However, over strictness about forcing the child to go to the toilet or about timing and cleanliness can cause personality problems, depending on how the child reacts. For example; over concern about going regularly may cause either obsessive time keeping. The phallic stage starts from about four years of age and is where the ‘genitals become the focus for the child’s erotic energy, largely through self stimulation’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 495). During this fundamental stage the Oedipus Complex emerges. That is little boys develop an erotically tinged preference for their mother. They also feel resentment towards their father, whom they view as a challenger for their mum’s affection. Similarly, little girls develop a special connection to their father. At the same time they learn that little boys have very different genitals, and supposedly they develop penis envy. The latency and genital stages last from around age six through puberty, where the child’s sexuality is greatly suppressed (Weiten, 2001, p. 495). The latency stage focuses on expanding social contacts beyond the immediate family. Subsequently, with puberty the child advances into the genital stage. Sexual drives re-emerge and the focus moves to the genitals once again. At this point, sexual energy is normally channeled towards peers of the other sex, rather than towards ourselves as in the phallic stage. Freud argued that future developments are rooted n early, formative experiences and that significant conflicts in later years are replays from crises from childhood. In fact, Freud believed that unconscious sexual conflicts rooted in childhood experiences cause most personality disturbances’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 495). ‘Behaviourism is a theoretical orie ntation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behaviour’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 499). Skinner made no provision for internal personality structures similar to Freud’s id, ego and superego because such structures can’t be bserved. Following in the tradition of Watson’s radical behaviourism, Skinner showed little interest in what goes on ‘inside’ people. He argued that it’s useless to speculate about private , unobservable cognitive processes. Instead, he believed that reinforcement is the primary factor that shapes behaviour, and that behaviour is based exclusively on external consequences. This means he focused on how the external environment moulds overt behaviour. ‘Skinner’s theory accounts for personality development by explaining how various response tendencies are acquired through learning’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 00). He built a ‘box’ in which he was able to teach anima ls to receive food by pecking or tapping a bar or light. He referred to this as operant conditioning. ‘Operant conditions are simply environmental stimuli that have reinforcing or adverse effects on the individual’s future behaviour in the presence of those stimuli’ (Stokes, pg 263). He believed that most human responses are shaped by this type of conditioning. Skinner’s theory asserts that ‘different types of reinforcement affect whether or not a particular behaviour will be repeated’ (Miller Shelly, 2001, p. 0). These different kinds include: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction and punishment. Firstly, positive reinforcement is a ‘reward given for a particular response’ (Miller Shelly, 2001, p. 50), such as giving a chocolate to a child who completes their homework on time. By rewarding the desirable behaviour you increase the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated. Secondly, negative reinforceme nt is an increase in behaviour by taking away a reinforcer (Miller Shelly, 2001). For example; if it’s cold, you would close the window. Thirdly, extinction is the theory that you stop providing reinforcement, and consequently the response will eventually disappear (Miller Shelly, 2001). For example; if you stop giving a child a chocolate when they complete their homework, the likelihood that they will continue to complete their homework will decrease. Lastly punishment is ‘inducing pain with the expectation that it will suppress a behaviour’ (Miller Shelly, 2001, p. 51). For example; if your impulsive decisions always backfire, your tendency to be impulsive will decline. Furthermore, Skinner found that the optimum period between response and reinforcement is about half a second. This discovery is very crucial, for example, if a parent wants to reward or punish a child, then to be effective it should be done straight away. According to Benson (1998, pg 79), ‘this also explains one reason why the penal system often doesn’t work. For instance, a burglar steals from a house, and three months later the police arrest him, and one year later he is convicted in court. ’ However, according to Skinner, this isn’t the only reason why punishment doesn’t always work. Skinner argues that punishment: ‘often causes the individual to avoid being punished, rather than stop the undesired behaviour; can cause the individual to associate the punishment with the punisher, rather than the behaviour; and trains an individual about what not to do, but it doesn’t train what to do’ (Benson, 1998, pg 80-81). Given that response tendencies are continuously being strengthened or weakened by new experiences, Skinner’s theory views ‘personality development as a continuous, lifelong journey’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 500). Unlike Freud, Skinner saw no reason to break down the developmental process into stages. Nor did he attribute special importance to early childhood experiences. In fact, Skinner believed that conditioning in humans works much the same as in rats and pigeons that he studied in his laboratory. Hence, he believed that conditioning strengthens and weakens response tendencies without the person’s conscious participation. Therefore, Skinner was able to explain consistencies in behaviour without being concerned about individual’s cognitive processes. Although it is generally argued that Skinner’s and Freud’s views were worlds about, Overskied’s article presents an alternative view. In fact, according to Overskeid (2007), Skinner’s ideas were evidently influenced by Freud, and they actually held many common views. Therefore, taking into account both Freud’s and Skinner’s approach to human behaviour, it can be argued that Skinner’s theory is more practical and efficient. Freud’s theory is criticized on several grounds including: poor testability, inadequate base of empirical evidence, and male centered views (Eysenck, 1990). Freud’s approach to human behaviour revolves around internal processes that are unobservable. Therefore people argue that they are unscientific, and consequently are only assumptions that cannot be taken seriously. Freud is also criticized because his ‘theories are made by generalizing from a small number of patients to the whole human population. Relying only on case studies can lead to faulty conclusions’ (SparkNotes, 2006). In addition, ‘others argue that most psychodynamic theories are not based on studies that follow people from childhood to adulthood. Instead, psychodynamic theorists listen to descriptions of an adult patient’s past and draw conclusions about the relevance of childhood experiences’ (SparkNotes, 2006). Furthermore, according to Van Wagner (2008), other criticisms of Freud’s theories consist of ‘overemphasis on: the unconscious mind, sex, aggression, and childhood experiences’. However, there is no denying that Freud’s ideas have been very influential on today’s society, fundamentally changing the way people think about themselves and others. Freud cured many patients or at least helped them understand and cope with their problems, and is methods are still used in Psychiatry today. In contrast, similarly to Freud, Skinner’s theory is relevant and widely employed today. It’s important in terms of how children are assimilated into society and how they deal with everyday life. His ideas have played an integral role in our schools, society’s standards of discipline and punishment and how we learn to fear certain things. Although he provides convincing evidence that biological factors exert considerable influence over personality, Skinner’s theory isn’t perfect and he also attracted criticisms. Firstly, because of ‘methodological problems with heritability ratios’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 13), and secondly because it offers ‘no systematic model of how physiology shapes personality’ (Weiten, 2001, p. 513). In addition, the theory is limited just by the fact that it is focused on behaviour, with little regard for what goes on in the mind. In conclusion, the different schools of psychology express various ideas on the reasons and drives for human behaviour. Freud argues that unconscious processes is central to human behaviour, whilst Skinner debates that the mind doesn’t exist, alternatively behaviour revolves around the environment. Although, Freudian psychology is composed of considerably different reasoning than Skinner’s behaviourism approach, they both provide interesting and engaging theories that have influenced psychology and philosophers in today’s society immensely. However, evidence is a crucial component when it comes down to evaluating the validity of a particular theory, especially in today’s society. Without proof, it is very hard to justify any sort of reasoning. Consequently, although Skinner attracts criticisms, he also provides significant evidence to support his ideas, and therefore presents a more convincing and credible approach to human ehaviour that that of Freud, who adopts very minimal evidence to support his theories. Reference list Benson, C. N. (1998). Introducing psychology. United Kingdom: Icon Books Limited. Crux, E. (2006). Behavioural development theories of Freud and Skinner. Retrieved 20th April 2008 from: echeat. com/essay. php? t=31292 Eysenck, H. J. (19 90). Decline and fall of the Freudian Empire. Washington, DC: Scott-Townsend. Freud, S. (1901/1960). The psychopathology of everyday life. In J. Strachey (Ed. ), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud Vol (4 5). London: Hogarth. Freud, S. (1924). A general introduction to psychoanalysis. New York: Boni Liveright. Freud, S. (1940). An outline of psychoanalysis. International Journal of Psychoanalysis. Vol (22) London: Hogarth. Miller, R. A. , Shelly, S. (2000). The complete idiot’s guide to personality profiles. America: Alpha Books. Overskeid, G. (2007). Looking for Skinner and finding Freud. American Psychologist, Vol 62(6), p. 590-595. Retrieved April 14th 2008 from: http://web. ebscohost. com. ezproxy. uws. edu. au/ehost/pdf? vid=8hid=17sid=86bc6283-432a-4c62-98ea-6ba090dc69a3%40SRCSM2 SparkNotes. (2006). Personality. Retrieved 20th April 2008 from: sparknotes. com/psychology/psych101/personality/section2. rhtml Stokes, P. (2007). Philosophy: The great thinkers. London: Arcturus Publishing Limited. Thompson, M. (2001). Philosophy of Science. United Kingdom: Hodder Headline Limited. Van Wagner, K. (2005). Psychoanalysis: The psychodynamic approach. Retrieved 20th April 2008 from: http://psychology. about. com/od/historyofpsychology/a/psychodynamic. htm Weiten, W. (2001). Psychology: Themes and Variations. New York: Wadsworth.

3 Important Skills Youll Acquire with Proposal Writing Training

3 Important Skills You'll Acquire with Proposal Writing Training Writing a proposal is one of the most important processes in business, and knowing the key elements of a great proposal versus a good or average proposal can make a world of difference to your career and to your business revenue. Here are some key elements for a successful proposal that you will discuss and practice throughout yourproposal writing training: 1. AudienceThroughout your career, you will have to write proposals for a variety of people. Every proposal will need to be focused differently, depending on the audience. With proper training, you will learn how to identify your audience and your audience's needs so you can properly address them in your proposal.Is a potential client most focused on budget, or the quality of your solution, or ongoing support, or your industry experience? This matters deeply. You must shape content so it matches each reader's focus. Keeping your audience in mind throughout the writing process can be challenging, and this proposal course will offer skills and guidance along the way to make sure you are always addressing your reader appropriately.2. OrganizationYou already know what elements your proposal needs, but how should you structure it? Our training will teach you the proper way to organize and structure your proposal logically so each point builds on each other and the overall argument is clea r and compelling to the reader.A very common error is starting a proposal with an introduction to your company and why you are suited to solve this audience's needs. That never works. Do not open a proposal with information about your company or service. Instead, focus on the client's need and problem. This confirms to your potential client that you understand their business and their need.3. ToneMastering the tone of your proposal is key to making sure your document is easily understood by your audience. If you are presenting a proposal to a financial firm, for example, your tone needs to be careful and exact. If you were to use tone that is too casual to this financial firm, you won't win the business. Conversely, if your proposal is to an avant-garde marketing firm, you would not want tone to be too formal. This training will teach you how to modify your tone depending on your audience so you will always come across as competent and compelling without confusing or off-putting you r reader. And, you'll learn how to avoid industry jargon and language bloat. We understand that writing is a constant process of learning and practicing. That's why we offer plenty of opportunities to practice writing proposals throughout the course. You submit incremental exercises, that build to a final proposal. And, you will receive help and feedback from your instructor throughout the writing process. A writing coach reviews your final proposal with you, live via WebEx. By the end of the course you will have the tools and skills you need to maximize your success when it comes to writing proposals. Learn more about proposal writing training.

Telephone interview for the London Borough of Newtown2 Essay

Telephone interview for the London Borough of Newtown2 - Essay Example Both qualitative and quantitative data are summarized in this report, to give a clear understanding of people’s responses obtained. 1. Confirming Caretaking Services The first question in the interview was the base to rest of the questions as it caters people’s direct responses about caretaking services being offered. The interview was not carried out further if the respondent answered No to the question to confirm that their estate provides caretaking services. On this question to confirm estate services of caretaking, a greater number of people responded positively, saying that their estate local authority does offer caretaking services to its residents. From the 400 interviews being taken, 266 responded in positive while the rest 134 said that the local authority does not provide such services. This data leads to the finding that there are around 33% of people who carry the impression of the local authority, being non- active in their estate cleaning and caretaking s ervices (Venter & Waldt, 2007). 2. Responses in Cleaning services For residents who responded ‘Yes’ to the first question, the interview was proceed further to ask them about their opinion on the quality of services being offered. This question addresses the cleaning services in the estate and which are the areas in which needs to be worked on by the local authority. ... i. Removal of Litter Waste of litter and junk stuff in passageways and roads is one core problem for many people as it creates hindrances in traffic flow in lanes and walkways (United Nations Environment Programme, 2013). So this question was catered right after the respondent affirmed about the services of the estate. Out of the 400 respondents, 165 were satisfied with the litter removing services of the estate. On the contrary, 101 residents were dissatisfied from this service and suggested that there is a big room for improvement in this area of cleaning. The rest 134 residents being interviewed gave the response of no opinion. Two findings that can be made from this data are that, the people responding no opinion to this question are not fully dissatisfied as then they would have a stand in against of the removal of litter service. Hence, it can be said that a bigger majority of people are content with this service being offered. Second majority are the people who are neither com pletely satisfied nor dissatisfied, but can be considered to be inclined towards satisfaction. Then a minority of people, making around 25% of the total interviewees, falls in the category of dissatisfied residents in cleaning and removal of litter (Guillain, 2008). ii. Cleaning of Bin Areas The next part of the question was related to the cleaning of bin areas of the locality. These are the areas where trash bins are located, and people trash their junk and rubbish into theses bins. When these bins are not emptied on regular intervals, then people drop their trash beside the bins or in the passageway, which creates health and environment problems due to exposure of

An analysis of how 'management via accounting' can be applied to keep Essay

An analysis of how 'management via accounting' can be applied to keep fuel costs as low as possible at a low-cost airline, w - Essay Example This management essay is going to provide complete solutions and management measure for airline fuel management. These solutions cover fuel forecasting and planning, procurement, inventory and logistic management, contract management, and accounting and tax management. As a result, finance and purchase teams acquire a complete overview of airline inventory and obligation when they hedge and purchase fuel. Airline companies’ accounting management can automate and reduce fuel costs by processing of both financial derivatives and physical fuel purchases used in hedging. Therefore, the accounting department should come up with aggregated financial-physical fuel view positions and cost risk exposure (Calder, 2013:9). In fuel planning and budgeting, the accounting department must conduct an analysis of â€Å"what-if† situations such as changes in the type of aircraft used, introduction of new airports and routes, and forward cost curves. In addition, the accounts department m ust be able to report on actual fuel costs versus forecasted fuel costs to enable it calculate the airlines hedged fuel plan (Calder, 2013:9). Airline accounts management can effectively curl fuel use and get investments directly to the company’s bottom line through operating efficiently. ... lancing method ensure an favorable centre of gravity for all airplanes, the airport entrance planning is considered to ensure low fuel burn on the entrance grounds, and ensure there are daily operations improvement to recover from trouble shooting activities hence limiting burning of wasted fuel (Centre for Aviation, 2013). Currently, all airlines’ accounting departments must ensure that they have Fuel management information system, which is imperative to monitor fuel expenses and assist the accountants in coming up with effective solutions to minimize fuel costs. This is because airline fuel cost has become the biggest cost ranging between 25% and 50% of annual airline expenditure in all airlines across the world. Airline calculations indicate that one dollar rise in fuel cost is equivalent to 1.6 billion dollars expenses of an entire airline company. It is highly important for airline accounting department to develop effective fuel management software such as FuelPlus Softwa re (Calder, 2013:9). This efficient fuel expense and management software in the accounting department can bring massive positive effect on the progressive running of an airline operation and cause a direct effect on the airlines profitability, sustainability, and competitiveness (Channel 4 Dispatches, 2013). As reported by Centre for Aviation (CAPA) recently, the financial optimism is now becoming the main cause of higher fuel prices. Whilst in the old days, Fuel management system was seen as primarily a method of bringing commercial advantages, it is currently becoming an important element of an airline expense management toolkit. Fuel management is not just monitoring operational information, but also a widespread enterprise that involves all departments in the airport. The accounting

Nurture debate in relation to the development of an individual Essay Example for Free

Nurture debate in relation to the development of an individual Essay The major debate concerning nature and nurture has been going on for decades and is still unresolved. Many people like to believe what we have inherited and our genes are what make us unique (the way we are and how we develop). Other people believe that the way we are raised and our experiences, that make us the way we are and how we grow. Physically the way we are built and look can be mainly due to nature. The genes that we inherit from our parents make the way of we look. For example, people say ‘Don’t you look like your mother?’ Genetic inheritance can define our eye colour (blue or hazel), whether we have straight or curly hair or how small we might be. We could also inherit certain genetic diseases which can seriously impact on our health. Though, we can still make decisions on how we look and how we change our appearance. There are multiple different cosmetic procedures available to alter our look. How we choose to live out our life and the choices that we make can have an influence on how we look. For ex, constantly eating junk food and not doing any exercising could lead to obesity. The environment that we are raised in and the experiences we go through can influence our health which contributes to physical growth. An ex of how nature and nurture can affect our physical growth is; we might carry genes that could lead us to be in danger of developing type 2 diabetes, but if we were to eat a healthy diet and get ample exercise , we might not develop the disease. Nature: Jades mother’s childhood was very unlike to what it is today, her life could have been called a difficult life, and her mother was bought up on her own by her own mother as her father died when she was 6 months old. As she grew up without a father figure in her life she closed herself off emotionally from males in general. Jades mother grew up around a lot of uncles and aunts so she was always well looked by her family. Jade grew very close to her gran over the years as she wasn’t getting the attention she wanted off her mother, as she had gotten remarried she had become very distant. When her gran died jades mother was very alone, she hardly ever spoke to her mother apart from at meal times and after she’d get in from being out with her friends. This got increasingly more awkward as time went on as the new husband never showed her any kindness so her mother stayed out  to avoid the arguments. Nurture: Where jades mother spent a lot of time in hospital during her life she was also slower to develop as a person as she wasn’t with her friends often enough to have developed personality traits. As she got older she started staying out overnight and going to parties where there would be lots of alcohol, drugs and sex. She also began hanging out with the older boys and girls; this meant that she was developing at a much faster rate than what she would normally have done. The environment that the she was raised in was very tranquil, peaceful and gentle neighbourhood; there was barely ever any trouble around where she grew up. Nevertheless as she got older she began to get more curious about the rough area’s around where she lived later on during her life she found herself surround by people who lived in these rough areas. This altered the way she saw her own life and what she has been taking for granted. Evaluate how the nature and nurture debate in may affect the p hysical, intellectual, emotional and social development of two life stages of the development of your chosen family member Nature As each cell in the body contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, one chromosome from each pair is inherited from your mother and one is inherited from your father. These chromosomes contain the genes you inherit from your parents. There may be different forms of the same gene. These different forms are called alleles. For example, for the gene that determines eye colour, there may be an allele for green eyes and an allele for hazel eyes. You may inherit a hazel allele from your mother and a green allele from your father. In this instance, you will end up with hazel eyes because hazel is the dominant allele. Those different forms of genes are caused by changes in the DNA coding. The same holds true for medical conditions, there may be a faulty gene that would result in a medical condition, and a normal version that might not cause any health anomalies. If your child ends up with a medical condition it will depend on certain biological factors including: What genes they inherit, whether the gene for that condition is dominant or recessive, their environment, including any treatment they may receive a genetic disease or  disorder is the consequence of changes, or mutations, in an individual’s DNA. A mutation is an alteration in the letters (DNA sequence) that makes up a gene. It’s more commonly referred to as a â€Å"spelling† mistake. Gene codes for proteins, the molecules that carry out majority of the work, perform most life functions, and make up the majority of cellular structures. When a gene is mutated so that its protein product can no longer carry out its normal function, a disorder can result. Genetic diseases can be inherited because they are mutations in the germ cells in the body the cells involved in passing genetic information from parents to offspring. Genetic diseases can also result from changes in DNA in somatic cells, or cells in the body that are not germ cells. Some genetic diseases are called Mendelian disorders they are caused by mutations that occur in the DNA sequence of a single gene. These are normally rare diseases; such as Huntington’s disease and cystic fibrosis. Many genetic diseases are multifactorial—they are caused by mutations in several genes compounded by environmental factors. Some examples of these are heart disease, cancer, and diabetes. Adolescence: Physical Social development: Nurture affected the physical and social development of Katherine’s mother Emma. During her adolescence phase Emma thought that she’d have to change the way she looked to fit into society (as she was obese). Emma began to blame herself and others because of the way she looked, she has had to face a ton of criticism from her close family and some friends; as they used to say stuff like â€Å"you’ve got such a pretty face but if you lost a bit of weight you’d be so much better off†. Throughout this time Emma looked towards the rest of her friends for acceptance which meant that to fit in with them she had to have the same stuff that everyone else had (clothes, technology etc.). This was obviously very difficult because of the fact she was quite overweight she couldn’t purchase the same type of clothes that her friends wore; this made her stand out of the crowd which gave her that extra  attention that she didn’t want. Emma spent a lot of time trying to fit in during her teenage years but she found out being herself was more important than losing who she was just to fit in. Emma stayed up late chatting with her friends. A lack of sleep could also affect our body; it would increase blood pressure and cholesterol level, increase stress hormones, etc. Sleep is really important, at this age as she should be having at least 7-9 hours of sleep. Intellectual development: Nature affected Emma intellectually throughout this period as Emma wasn’t really sure on what type of career she wanted to do, however after some thought she decided she wanted to that pursue a career that would evolve helping the elderly. She accomplished in getting a job whilst being at school as this would help her to develop some new skills and allow her to make her own money, although she knew that wasn’t the career path she wanted to stay in. Emma also began to volunteer at a care home; this is what helped her to decide on what career path she wanted to go down. Emotional development: Nurture also affected Emma emotionally during her adolescence; Emma had poor self-image and low self-esteem. She also began to resent her friends and her mother as they both wanted her to be someone that she was not, when it was clear that she was never going to be able to keep the act up forever. During adolescence Emma began to question her own self-worth as some friends were also making snide little comments whilst her back was turned. Emma began to hang around with men as she went into this life stage as she thought that they were a lot less cruel. The boys accepted her more as part of their group so she began to build up her self-image up again, giving her more confidence and self-belief. Adulthood: Physical development: Emma was affected by nature during her adulthood. During her adulthood she discovered that she was at risk of developing a variety of different genetic diseases (diabetes type one, lung cancer, breast cancer, asthma etc.). Emma  also discovered that she may not be able to have children of her own because she has Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) which sometimes genetic. If any relatives, such as your mother, sister or aunt, have PCOS then the risk of you developing it is often a greater chance than usual. As she began to get older her hair began to get darker and she began to get grey bits through her hair, she also has had more problems with her teeth as they are falling out or being damaged due to decay. As she got older she also began to put on weight as her metabolism started slowing down. During this life stage Emma became pregnant with Katherine and there were some complications during the birth as she had to have caesarean due to preeclampsia. Intellectual development: Emma was less influenced by nature as an adult as she can make her own choices and decision. When she was deciding on what course is she was going take after finishing secondary school, she knew what she wanted to do after volunteering in elderly care home. When she turned 20 Emma got her first job in a care home she was working double shifts because of the love that she had grown towards her job. After working in a care home for the terminally ill, my mother decided that she wanted a change her job outlook and she started working in a domestic abuse centre for women. When Emma became pregnant with me she started doing hairdressing from home. This was more of a hobby for my mother as she would only do family or close friends. She had had to give up her job at domestic abuse centre because it would have meant putting Katherine in danger and the people at the centre wouldn’t allow it. Emotional development Social development: Emma was both emotionally and socially affected by nurture. Emma was influenced by friends and new work colleagues in adulthood, as you grow more work connections as you get older. Emotionally she began to ponder about life as a teenager, and recognized that the choices she made were the best for her. When Emma reached this life stage she found love and spent 20 years with Katherine’s father which ended after attempting to save their relationship for 2 years. Their relationship had been very successful for 18 years, but after Emma’s mother died he began to try to control her. Emma found it very difficult to deal with after her mother died as she had a few  regrets about the way their relationship ended. Emotionally Emma also found out that after her mother died that she could inherit a variety of genetic diseases. This made it hard for Emma to focus on the positives after splitting up with my father and her mother dying. Socially Emma relied on her friends a lot more as she got older as her family didn’t really contact her after her mother had died. Emma had several best friends that were there to support after her relationship had ended and her mother had died.

Informed Consent, Refusal, and Competence Essay -- the patients’ right

In the medical field today, whenever a procedure is going to be done on a patient, informed consent must be given to the doctor from the patient prior the procedure taking place. Informed consent is the approval given by the patient to the doctor for treatment. In the case being discussed today, an 80 year old patient, with a history of congestive heart failure, is in the doctor's office complaining of chest pains. After an examination, the doctor believes the best course of treatment would be to have a surgical procedure, in an attempt to save the patients life. During the examination however, the patient expresses the wish to just be able to die. There is no Living will or Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) on file. The patient’s wife is afraid of the surgery, while the daughter is for anything that could save her dads life. The first thing that needs to take place in this situation is the determination of the competency of the patient. By using the Understand-and-Appreciate method of determining competency, if the patient understands the situation and all the options that are available to him; but also appreciates the options and understand the side effect of treatment or lack there of treatment , the patient is deemed confident. On the flip side, if the patient’s requests fall too far outside the realm of what would be considered normal, that could help in determining whether or not to override the patient’s wishes due to no longer being considered competent. It is the belief that â€Å"it is ethically justified to overrule the seriously irrational decision of a competent patient.† (Fredrick Adolf Paola, 2010) Under the assumption that during the last five years of treating Patient X for congestive heart failure, he never men... ...rd battle to fight at times. The reasoning behind the refusal may not make sense to everyone, but as long as the patient has been deemed competent, the patients’ right to choose their own medical care becomes number one priority. If, on the other hand, circumstances have found the patient not competent, moving forward to acquire consent from the next of kin of the court appointed surrogate of care is a must to ensure the patient receives the best medical care possible and results in an improved quality care of life for the patient. Works Cited Competency to make medical decisons. (n.d.). Retrieved 07 03, 2011, from Stanford. Edu: http://www.stanford.edu/group/psylawseminar/Competency.htm Fredrick Adolf Paola, R. W. (2010). medical Ethics and Humanities. Juonesd and Bartlett Publiushers. Lecture notes for HLT-305. (2011, 07 03). State University .